TEACH, TEACHER, TEACHING
In the Old Testament
Terminology. In various English versions 12 Heb. terms in the OT are rendered by some form of the word "teach." The more important are as follows:
1. Heb. 'alap, "get familiar with" (Job 33:33; 35:11). The verb is used four times in the OT and is rendered in Pro 22:25 as "learn" and in Job 15:5 by the verb "uttereth" (RSV, NASB "teach").
2. Heb. bin occurs c. 125 times in the OT in the general sense of "understand." In two instances the causative tense has been translated as "taught" (2Ch 35:3; Neh 8:9).
3. Heb. dabar. Appearing nearly 1,500 times in its various forms in the OT, it is rendered as "speak" 814 times and as "say" 119 times. The KJV translated the verb idiomatically as "taught" in Jer 28:16 (ASV "hast spoken"; RSV "uttered") and in Jer 29:32 (ASV "hath spoken"; RSV "has talked"). The RSV also uses "taught" (KJV, ASV "spoken") to render the verb in Deu 13:5.
4. Heb. yada' occurs over 940 times and is translated 662 times by the verb "know." The causative form of the verb is rendered as "teach" in nine instances in the KJV (Deu 4:9; Jdg 8:16; 2Ch 23:13; Job 32:7; 37:19; Psa 90:12; Pro 9:9; Isa 40:13 [RSV "instruct"], and Ezr 7:25 where it represents the cognate Aramaic yeda'). In addition, the RSV uses the word "teach" as the translation of the causative tense in Psa 51:6; 78:5; 143:8.
5. Heb. yasar, "chasten, correct, instruct," in one instance is translated by the verb "teach" (Pro 31:1).
6. Heb. sakal, "to have insight," is rendered in the KJV as "taught" in 2Ch 30:22 (NASB "show good insight") and "teacheth" in Pro 16:23 (RSV "makes judicious").
7. Heb. hakam, "to be wise," is causative in Pro 5:13 ("teachers"), and is idiomatically rendered in Psa 105:22 as "to teach wisdom."
8. Heb. yara, "direct, teach. instruct," The causative form f the verb is correctly rendered over 40 times in the KJV by some form of the verb "teach".
9. Heb. lamad is translated 57 times in the KJV by some form of the word "teach." In addition the RSV uses the word "taught" to render the verb in Isa 50:4, where it occurs twice (ASV, KJV "learned").
It is apparent that some of the foregoing Heb. words are rendered periphrastically by some form of the word "teach" in order to render into English the nuance of the particular passage. However, yara, and lamad are basically the Heb. terms which may be generally equated with the English word "teach" and its cognates.
God as teacher. God is the incomparable teacher (Job 36:22). None can teach Him knowledge (Job 21:22; Isa 40:14). On the contrary, it is He who teaches man knowledge (Psa 94:10), and the farmer the art of agriculture (Isa 28:24-26). God taught Moses what to say and do (Exo 4:12,15), and Israel concerning the law and the commandments (Exo 24:12). He promised to teach the royal Davidic heirs His covenant and His testimonies (Psa 132:12) and Israel how she might profit (Isa 48:17). Even the apostate Judah, said Jeremiah, had been persistently taught by the Lord, but to no avail (Jer 32:33). In the last days Yahweh will be sought by the nations in order to be taught by Him (Isa 2:3; Mic 4:2; cf. Isa 30:20; 54:13).
But God teaches the individual as well as the nation. The humble and the sinner He teaches in His way (Psa 25:8-9), the psalmist from his youth up out of the law (Psa 71:17; 94:12), and the one who fears God in the way he should choose (Psa 25:12). The psalmist praises the Lord that He has taught him His statutes (Psa 119:171), and because of this teaching he has not departed from the ordinances (Psa 119:102). We may petition God to teach us His statutes (Psa 119:12,64,68,124,135), to teach good judgment and knowledge (Psa 119:66), and how to perform His will (Psa 143:10).
Man as teacher. Moses taught Israel the statutes, the commandments, and the ordinances (Deu 4:1,5,14; 5:31; 6:1; 11:19). The parents, in turn, were instructed to teach these to their children (Deu 4:10; 11:19). The Levitical order was to teach Israel all the statutes, ordinances, and the law of Yahweh (Lev 10:11; Deu 33:10). Mention is made of the ministry of a teaching priest (2Ch 15:3; cf. Mal 2:6-7).
The song of Moses was to be taught to the people (Deu 31:19,22). David taught the people of Judah the lament over Saul and Jonathan (2Sa 1:18, NASB; cf. Jer 9:20 and Psa 60 title). The judges were to teach the instructions concerning decisions (Deu 17:11). In his valedictorian address before turning over the reins of governing the people to young King Saul, Samuel promised to continue to teach Israel in the good and right way (1Sa 12:23). Jehoshaphat commanded the Levites to teach the law in the cities of Judah (2Ch 17:7,9), while Ezra taught the people the statutes and ordinances of the Lord (Ezr 7:10). The Assyrian king requested of the Judean monarch that one of the Israelitic priests might teach the Assyrian immigrants in Samaria the law of the God of the land (2Ki 17:27 f.).
David invited his children to listen to him as he taught them the fear of the Lord (Psa 34:11); later he vowed that if Yahweh would bestow upon him moral renewal, he would teach transgressors the ways of God (Psa 51:13). He also proposed to teach the penitent the way he should go (Psa 32:8).
In the Wisdom Literature the preacher taught the people knowledge, weighing and studying and arranging proverbs with great care (Ecc 12:9). Solomon disclosed that his father had taught him adherence to paternal instruction (Pro 4:4), while in another place the writer asserts that he has taught his son or disciple the way of wisdom (Pro 4:11). Job petitioned his friends to teach him his error (Job 6:24). Bildad commended to Job the experience of former ages as a source of authoritative teaching (Job 8:10). Job indicated that even the fauna ad flora join to instruct man (Job 12:7-8), and proposed to teach his friends the hand of God (Job 27:11). Jeremiah prophesied that the knowledge of Yahweh would not be taught in the days of the new covenant because all would know Him personally (Jer 31:34; cf. Heb 6:11 and Isa 54:13).
Unfortunately, however, it is possible to teach evil things as well as good things. The captured cities were put under the ban lest they should teach Israel their pagan abominations (Deu 20:18). Judgment is predicted upon the prophet who teaches lies (Isa 9:15) as well as on the priests who teach solely for hire (Mic 3:11). A worthless person is represented as teaching (or pointing) contemptuously or mischievously with his finger (Pro 6:13). Idolators are held up to ridicule for their credulity that idols of wood and stone can teach aught to their devotees (Hab 2:19).
Education. Primary education took place in the home (Deu 4:10; 11:19). The parents combined in this early training of the child (Pro 4:4,11; 31:1; Song 8:2). Leaders of the nation, priests, prophets, psalmists, and the wise contributed to the general education of Israel. In addition, some had undoubtedly the advantage of the specialized training in the palace school or in other seats of learning, particularly in the later history of Israel (e.g., Pro 1:1-4; 1Ch 25:7 f.). Daniel attended the royal academy of Babylon and was taught the language and literature of the Chaldeans (Dan 1:4). The characteristics of one who has taught are receptiveness toward instruction and the ability to embody it in expression (Isa 50:4).
In the New Testament
Terminoloy. Some form of the word "teach" is used in the KJV to render five Gr. terms, four of which are otherwise more precisely translated by the RSV.
1. Gr. matheteuo, "to be" or "to make a disciple" (Mat 28:19; Acts 14:21).
2. Gr. paideuo, "to educate" or "train" (Acts 22:3; Tit 2:12).
3. Gr. katecheo, "to instruct" (1Co 14:19; Gal 6:6 twice; RSV "taught").
4. Gr. kataggello, "to proclaim" (Acts 16:21; RSV "advocate")
5. Gr. sophronizo, "to encourage," "advise" (Tit 2:4).
The RSV renders the normal term for "word" (logos) idiomatically in Luk 10:39 as "teaching."
Apart from these inexact renderings in the KJV, the idea conveyed by the word "teach" and its cognates and compounds rests entirely upon some form of the verb didasko. God as teacher. Paul maintained that his preaching was not in words taught by human wisdom but by the Spirit (1Co 2:13). The apostle refrained from discoursing on brotherly love to the Thessalonians because he affirmed that they were taught of God to love one another (1Th 4:9). Jesus encouraged His disciples not to worry about what they would say in the perils of persecution, for in that very hour the Holy Spirit would teach them what to say (Luk 12:12). The Holy Spirit, said our Lord, would come as the Paraclete and would teach His disciples all things (Joh 14:26). The anointing of the Spirit is the perennial tutor of the believer (1Jo 2:27).
Jesus as teacher. The ministry of Jesus throughout Palestine is described as essentially one of teaching, whether to the casual crowds or to His own disciples; whether in the synagogues, public places, or in the audience of the religious leaders (Luk 5:17). The effect upon His gatherings was impressive, and forced the conviction that He taught not as the scribes but as one who possessed authority (Mat 7:28 f.; 13:54; Mar 1:22; 6:5; cf. Luk 4:32). See Authority. Jesus asserted that God had taught Him the words that He spoke (Joh 8:28) and that His teaching was from the Father (Joh 7:16 f.). His teaching was characterized by the frequent use of parables (Mar 4:2).
Nicodemus acknowledged Jesus to be a teacher come from God and attested by mighty works (Joh 3:2). The chief priests and scribes interrogated Him as to the source of His teaching authority (Mat 21:23; cf. Joh 18:19). Even His opponents frankly admitted that the Lord taught the way of God impartially, regardless of the fear or the favor of man (Mar 12:14; Luk 20:21; Mat 22:16; cf. Joh 18:19). Indeed, all were astonished at His teaching (Mat 7:28; 13:54; 22:33; Mar 1:22; 11:18) and asked whether it was a new teaching (Mar 1:27). In His early circuit of Galilee Christ was glorified by all for His teaching (Luk 4:15). In the last days of His ministry He was daily in the temple teaching (Luk 19:47; 20:1; cf. Mar 14:49; Joh 18:20). His ministry was characterized by such activity that the Jews, misunderstanding one of His statements, queried whether He would go to teach the Diaspora and the Gentiles (Joh 7:35).
Christ's reputation as a teacher quickly won for Him the respectful title of rabbi (q.v.) or rabboni ("my lord," an outstanding title for a distinguished teacher) from His disciples (Mar 9:5; 11:21; Joh 1:49), His audiences (Mar 12:14; Joh 3:2), and even his enemies (Luk 10:25; 11:45; 19:39; 20:28). This Aramaic title is at times left untranslated, at times it is interpreted, but more often it is rendered by the Gr. word didaskalos (KJV, "master"; RSV "teacher"), which though not a literal rendering is true to the sense of the original. Jesus accepted this title as indicative of the true relationship existing between Himself as teacher and His followers as disciples (Joh 13:13; Luk 6:40; Mat 10:24 f.).
The central theme in the teaching of Jesus was the kingdom of God (Mat 5:2; 9:35). Luke described his Gospel account as pertaining to all that Jesus began both to do and to teach (Acts 1:1). Among the many lessons Jesus taught His disciples, the evangelists have singled out several for particular mention; e.g., the Sermon on the Mount (q.v.); the request of His disciples to be taught how to pray (Luk 11:1); His rejection, death, and resurrection at Jerusalem (Mar 8:31; 9:31); and His second coming (Mat 24-25; Mar 13; Luk 17:20-27; 21).
The apostles as teachers. During His ministry Jesus sent His disciples out to teach (Mar 6:30). They were later commanded by Jesus to make disciples of all nations and to teach them to observe all He had commanded (Mat 28:20). After Pentecost, following the ascension, the apostles taught the people the resurrection of Jesus from the dead (Acts 4:2). Peter and John were commanded by the Jewish council to desist from teaching in the name of Jesus (Acts 4:18), a command they did not heed, and were apprehended in the temple as they taught further (Acts 5:21, 24 f.). Despite another stern warning from the authorities, the apostles continued to teach and preach Jesus Christ (Acts 5:42) until all Jerusalem was filled with their teaching (Acts 5:28).
Barnabas and Paul taught an entire year in the church at Antioch (Acts 11:26; cf. 15:35). The proconsul Sergius Paulus was astonished at Paul's teaching of the Lord (Acts 13:12). When the Athenians heard Paul, they brought him to the Areopagus so that he might expound to them his new teaching (Acts 17:19). Paul spent eighteen months at Corinth teaching the Word of God (Acts 18:11), and later reminded the Ephesian elders that he had taught them publicly and from house to house during his stay at Ephesus (Acts 20:20). Apollos, though he knew only the baptism of John, taught diligently at Ephesus the things of the Lord (Acts 18:25). The Jewish disciples accused Paul before James and the elders at Jerusalem of having taught the Gentiles to abandon the law of Moses, to cease the practice of circumcision, and to forsake Jewish customs (Acts 21:21). This same charge was leveled by the Jews themselves when they discovered Paul in the temple and cried out against him as one who had taught men everywhere against the Jews, the law, and the temple (Acts 21:28). By the spoken and written word the apostles taught the message of Christianity to their contemporaries.
Teachers in the church. Paul refers repeatedly to his commission as a teacher, "a teacher of the Gentiles in faith and truth" (1Ti 2:7; 2Ti 1:11) and to his doctrine (2Ti 3:10; 1Co 4:17). He denied that the gospel he preached was taught him by man; on the contrary, he stated that he received it by revelation of Jesus Christ (Gal 1:12). Paul's teaching was to all men in all wisdom that every man might become mature in Christ (Col 1:28; cf. Heb 6:1-2).
Among the gifts of the ascended Christ in order to equip and train the members of His Body were pastors and teachers (Eph 4:11). Since the apostles, prophets, and evangelists were primarily mobile, very likely many of the teachers in the early church had a traveling ministry, visiting the believers in a certain city for a shorter or longer period of time. In the church at Antioch it is probable that most or all of the five men named in Acts 13:1 were not permanently residing there.
The role of the teacher in the church was through divine appointment and endowment of the Spirit (1Co 12:28). Integrity and fidelity to the task of teaching are strongly enjoined (Rom 12:7; 1Ti 4:11,13,16), both in preparation and in content (Tit 2:1,7; 2Ti 4:2). Those who teach are to be considered worthy of double honor (1Ti 5:17) and merit the support of those who are taught (Gal 6:6). The aspirant teacher is solemnly warned that it will ultimately involve him in a more stringent judgment (Jam 3:1).
But while there are those specially selected to teach in the church, every believer is to engage in this ministry (Col 3:16; 1Co 14:6,26; Heb 5:12). This is to be of benefit to all, and must not be compromised by disorder in the worship of the church (1Co 14:6,19,26). The servant of the Lord must be an apt teacher and avoid contentions (2Ti 2:24). While women are forbidden to teach men in the church (1Ti 2:12), Paul bids older women to teach what is good as they educate the younger women (Tit 2:3).
The teaching in the church. There is reference in the NT to an apostolic Christian tradition termed variously the sound doctrine (Tit 2:7) or the faithful word (Tit 1:9), which had been delivered to the church (Rom 6:17; 16:17; Eph 4:21; Col 2:7; 2Th 2:15; 2Ti 2:2; Tit 1:9). The early disciples at Jerusalem devoted themselves to the teaching of the apostles (Acts 2:42). Part of this tradition was the OT, which is profitable, says Paul, for teaching (Rom 15:4; 2Ti 3:16; cf. 1Ti 1:8-10). The Christian teaching and that alone (1Ti 1:3) is to be entrusted to believing men who shall in turn be able to teach others also (2Ti 2:2; cf. 1Ti 4:11). The elder, therefore, must be an apt teacher (1Ti 3:2), who is to hold fast to the faithful word which he has been taught so that he may give instruction in sound doctrine and offer an effective apology for the faith (Tit 1:9). Obedience to the standard of doctrine is credited with the moral power to liberate the believer from the thraldom of sin (Rom 6:17). The doctrine is according to godliness (1Ti 6:3) and supplies the necessary spiritual nourishment to the believer (1Ti 4:6).
Other usage. The boy Jesus was found by His family sitting among the teachers in the temple (Luk 2:46). Nicodemus is called the teacher of Israel by our Lord (Joh 3:10, ASV, etc.). John the Baptist taught his disciples how to pray (Luk 11:1). Jesus warns that he who breaks the least commandment and teaches men so will be least in the kingdom, and, conversely, he who observes and teaches men so concerning the least commandment will be great in the kingdom (Mat 5:19). Jesus censured the scribes and the Pharisees for worshiping God vainly, teaching as doctrines the precepts of men (Mat 15:9; Mar 7:7; cf. Isa 29:13).
False teaching. There were those among the Christians in Judea who taught the necessity of circumcision for salvation, a doctrine later repudiated by the Jerusalem council (Acts 15:1). Paul makes mention of human precepts and teachings which prescribe cultic regulations to which the Christian must not submit (Col 2:20-22). He warns Timothy that in the latter times some will depart from the faith giving heed to doctrines of demons (1Ti 4:1), while others will accumulate for themselves teachers to suit their own likings (2Ti 4:3). False teachers who will bring in destructive heresies are elsewhere forecast to arise in the church (2Pe 2:1).
Paul urged Timothy to teach the sound words of Jesus and to reject those who teach otherwise (1Ti 6:2 f.). He instructed that there were those who must be silenced since they were upsetting whole families by teaching for base gain what they had no right to teach (Tit 1:11), and he warns Timothy against the Judaizers who desire vainly to become teachers of the law (1Ti 1:7). The same apostle urged upon the Ephesians the spiritual integration and vital participation of all within the church so that they would not be tossed to and fro and carried about with every wind of doctrine (Eph 4:14).
The author of the Epistle to the Hebrews warns his audience not to be led away by diverse and strange doctrines (Heb 13:9), while John bids his readers not to associate with anyone who does not abide in the doctrine of Christ (2Jo 1:9-10). The church at Pergamum is criticized for having some who adhered to the teaching of Balaam and the doctrine of the Nicolaitans (Rev. 2:14), while the church at Thyatira is censured for tolerating the teaching of the women Jezebel (Rev 2:20,24).
See Chastisement; Disciple; Education; Lead, Leader; Parable; Parables of Jesus; Rabbi.
Bibliography. Karl H. Rengstorf, "Didasko, etc.," TDNT, II, 135-165. E. R. D.
DISCIPLE
The Gr. word mathetes for disciple used nearly 270 times in the Gospels and Acts denotes a pupil who submits to processes of learning under a teacher. The Gr. has entered the English language in the term mathematics, which means literally, "disposed to learn." In Attic prose, notably in Plato, it alludes to the students trained by a philosopher or rhetorician. The concept prevailed in the OT with "sons of the prophets," understudies of Samuel, Elijah, and Elisha, and later, Paul, "brought up at the feet of Gamaliel." In the NT, the term is used of the disciples of John the Baptist (Mat 9:14), the Pharisees (Mar 2:18), and Moses, indicating latter day adherents of his teachings (Joh 9:28).
In the epistles the term mimetes, "follower," "imitator," occurs in exhortations to pattern one's life after God (Eph 5:1), the writer as an apostle (1Co 4:16; 11:1; Phi 3:17; 2Th 3:7,9), and other believers (Heb 6:12; 13:7). See Example.
In a broad sense, Jesus used "disciple" as descriptive of all His followers coming under the influence of His teaching, striving to conform to His principles. Luke refers to "the whole multitude of the disciples" (19:37). In Acts 6:2 he states that the Twelve summoned the multitude of the disciples. Jesus said, "If ye continue in my word, then are ye my disciples indeed" (Joh 8:31). Jesus' disciples then and ever are those who respond to His invitation, "Learn of me "(Mat 11:29).
In a restricted sense, disciple (also apostle) applies to the inner circle of the Twelve, called out of the greater company that they might be with Christ, hear Him expound the mysteries of the kingdom reserved for a select group, witness and later perform authenticating signs and wonders, and proclaim the gospel to the world.
The Twelve were as follows: Simon Peter, Andrew, James of Zebedee, John, Philip, Nathanael (also known as Bartholomew), Thomas, Matthew (called Levi), James of Alphaeus, Simon the Zealot or Canaanite, Judas the brother of James and sometimes called Thaddaeus, and Judas Iscariot.
Although lacking in higher education, as Hebrews they had a thorough grounding in the doctrines and history of their faith. Their obtuseness tried but never exhausted the patience of Jesus, who is no less forbearing with our limitations in His service. Their very dullness of comprehension constitutes an apologetic for the historical validity of what the Gospels relate concerning Jesus. Dr. A.B. Bruce said: "They were slow-minded persons, very honest but very unapt to take in new ideas....We know that nothing but facts could make such men believe that which nowadays they get credit for inventing."
Bibliography. G. Kittel, "Akolutheo", TDNT, I, 210-216. K.H. Rengstorf, "Manthano", etc., TDNT, IV, 390-461. G. H. T.
MINISTER, MINISTRY
The Heb. and Gr. words for minister are used to designate officials of a civil and religious nature. From the etymology of the words and from the context it is clear that these are positions of responsibility rather than privilege.
In the OT the usual word for minister is mesharet. This is the piel participle of the verb sharat. The expression may indicate one who attends a person of high rank, such as Joshua did Moses (Exo 24:13; Jos 1:1) or Elisha did Elijah (1Ki 19:21). In the later writings it came to refer to royal officers (1Ki 10:5; 2Ch 22:8), even to the angels of God (Psa 104:4). However, by far the most characteristic use was in connection with the ministration of the priests in the temple (Deu 10:8; 17:12; 21:5; Isa 61:6; Eze 44:11; Joel 1:9,13; Ezr 8:17; Neh 10:36).
The NT Gr. employs three terms for minister. Leitourgos is the first word and is used for mesharet in the LXX. It referred to a public servant, possibly a wealthy citizen, who would offer his services to the state (cf. Rom 13:3-6). In due time it took on the distinctively religious flavor which it enjoyed in the LXX (Rom 15:16). Thus Christ is the minister in the heavenly temple (Heb 8:2), and Paul is such in bringing the gospel to the Gentiles (Rom 15:16).
Hyperetes is a Gr. compound meaning an under-rower in a galley. It came to signify anyone in a subordinate position or one who was a personal attendant or helper to a superior (Luk 1:2; Acts 13:5; 26:16; 1Co 4:1). This term translated hazzan, an attendant in the synagogue whose duty it was to open and close the building, care for the books used in the services, and assist the priest or teacher in worship (Luk 4:20).
Finally, the most characteristic NT word for minister is diakonos. It was used of those who waited on tables (cf. Luk 12:37; 17:8). This word emphasizes the lowliness of Christian service (Mat 20:26; Mar 10:43). The apostles and their helpers are called ministers of God (2Co 6:4; 1Th 3:2); of Christ (2Co 11:23; Col 1:7; 1Ti 4:6); of the gospel (Eph 3:6-7; Col 1:23); of the new covenant (2Co 3:6); and of the church (Col 1:24-25). In Acts 6:2-3 seven were chosen to assist the apostles in the serving of tables. These men served as the prototype of the deacon, the later church officials mentioned in Phi 1:1 and characterized in 1Ti 3:8 ff. While diakonos is usually associated with the Christian ministry, the expression is also used of Satan's ministers (2Co 11:13) and possibly ministers of sin (Gal 2:17).
In the OT the ministry referred primarily to the religious services performed by the priests and Levites. However, after the death of Christ, the NT speaks of each believer as functioning as a priest before God (Rev 1:6; 1Pe 2:9). According to Rom 12:6-8; 1Co 12:28; Eph 4:11 those in the body of Christ have been endowed with charismatic gifts by the Holy Spirit to the end that they might be involved in the ministry. It is further clear that no matter how insignificant that gift might be, it is to be exercised "for the perfecting of the saints" and "for the edifying of the body of Christ" (Eph 4:12).
Alongside the priestly function of the individual believer, the NT marks the development of a professional Christian ministry. During our Lord's ministry on earth, He trained and sent out the Twelve (Mat 10:1 ff.; Mar 6:7 ff.; Luk 9:1 ff.). After Christ's death, Matthias was chosen to take part in the ministry of the apostles (Acts 1:23 ff.). The seven deacons were added to help with the serving of the tables (Acts 6:1-8). By the time of the Jerusalem council (Acts 15) the term apostle seems to have had a broader reference. An apostle was one who had witnessed the resurrection and had received a direct commission from the risen Christ to preach (cf. 1Co 9:1 ff.). By the close of Paul's ministry the leadership of the local church was in the hands of bishops, elders, and deacons. The exact interrelationship that existed among these leaders has long been a matter of dispute. Lightfoot, along with Harnack, takes the bishop and elder to be one in the NT. The title bishop emphasizes the function of oversight, while elder characterizes the dignity of the office. Later the two became separated, and the bishop became a distinct order, higher than that of the elder. Sohm and Lowrie, on the other hand, contend that the two were always separate, although this distinction became more pronounced with the passing of time. At first not all elders were bishops, but all bishops were elders.
The doctrine of apostolic succession first appeared in the 1st cen. Letter of Clement. By the close of the 2nd cen. the teaching seems to have crystallized. However, from the very beginning orthodox fathers, notably Irenaeus (Heresies 3:3-4), rejected this claim by appealing to the teaching of the NT.
See Lead, Leader; Service.
Bibliography. G. Henton Davies, "Minister in the Old Testament", IDB, III, 385f. Adolf von Harnack, The Constitution and Law of the Church in the First Two Centuries, trans. by F. L. Pogson, New York: Putnam, 1910. J. B. Lightfoot, "The Christian Ministry," Saint Paul's Epistle to the Philippians, London: Macmillan, 1885 ed., pp. 181-269. Walter Lowrie, The Church and Its Organization in Primitive and Catholic Times, New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1904. Thomas W. Manson, The Church's Ministry, Philadelphia: Westminster, 1948. Leon Morris, "Minister, Ministry", BDT, pp. 355f. John K. S. Reid, The Biblical Doctrine of the Ministry, Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1955. Massey H. Shepherd, Jr., "Ministry, Christian", IDB, III, 386-392. H. Strathmann and R. Meyer, "Leiturgeo, etc. ", TDNT, IV, 215-231. P. D. F.
The above is taken from the Wycliffe Encyclopedia, a component of Bible Research Systems' Verse Search program.
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