SERVICE
The terms "service" and "servant" in the Bible are used in the sense of both servitude and ministry. Slavery, bondage, or enforced service is attested from the earliest times throughout the ancient Near East. Slave labor was utilized mainly by wealthy families and in royal building projects, such as the construction of the pyramids in Egypt and pharaoh's store cities before the Exodus.
In Palestine and Syria the slave was usually a domestic servant rather than an agricultural or industrial worker. In the Alalakh tablets from Syria in the 18th and 15th cen. B.C. the highest number of slaves belonging to one master was three. The big landowners, like those of Babylonia and Assyria, seem to have preferred free tenants to slave labor (I. Mendelsohn, "On Slavery in Alalakh," IEJ, V [1955], 65-72).
The average price of slaves rose gradually like that of other commodities during the 2nd and 1st mils. B.C. For the remarkable correspondence between the prices of slaves mentioned in Scripture and those recorded on inscriptions contemporary with the biblical incidents, see K. A. Kitchen, "Slave," NBD, p. 1196.
The most frequent Heb. verb for "serve" is 'abad, "to work," "labor" (Exo 5:18; 20:9; 34:21). Commonly it meant to serve a master as a slave (Exo 21:6; Deu 15:12,18; Jer 34:14); but the noun 'ebed, in addition to "slave," has a variety of meanings. For example, in 2Sa 9:2a Ziba was Saul's "servant" or retainer; in v. 10 Ziba's 20 "servants" were bondmen; and in vv. 2b, 11 "thy servant" is a polite expression of humility. Because of the king's powerful control, the word 'ebed also means the king's subjects, especially his mercenaries, officers, and ministers, those who had joined his service.
Heb. na'ar, "young man," "servant," suggests that often one's attendant was youthful and unmarried (Gen 22:3; Num 22:22; Jdg 7:10 f.. The verb sharat means "to minister," to serve in a personal way, as Joshua waited upon Moses (Exo 24:13; 33:11). The female slave or husband was called shipha (e.g., Hagar, Gen 16:1; 25:12) or 'ama (Gen 20:1; Exo 23:12) whose status was often that of a child-bearing concubine to her master.
Service in the OT
Secular service
1. A work agreement (Heb. 'aboda) between two parties for a stipulated period of time (Gen 29:27; 30:26; cf. Hos 12:12).
2. The work ('aboda) of a servant, i.e., heavy, menial work (Lev 23:7-8,21,25,36).
3. Work of the hired servant or hireling (Heb. sakir, Exo 12:45; Job 7:1-2; Isa 16:14; Gr. misthios, Luk 15:17,19), who, though he is used as an example of one who takes no real interest or responsibility (Job 7:2; 14:16; Joh 10:12-13), still is to be treated fairly and handled with kindness (Mal 3:5; cf. Eph 6:5-9), and not as a bondservant (Lev 25:39).
4. Israelitish slave servants. Men became slaves of their brethren for the following reasons: (a) Poverty, the inability to sustain oneself and one's family. This was regarded as a kind of sale, in that the person sold the right to his labor to one of his brethren in return for provision of sustenance for himself and his family (Lev 25:39,47; cf. Deu 15:12-13). Exorbitant interest rates on loans, although forbidden under the statutes regulating usury, often brought a man to insolvency and subsequent slavery. Some of David's followers were defaulting debtors who had fled their creditors (1Sa 22:2) (b) Restitution for theft. Restitution by law required the return of at least double the amount stolen. Should the thief be unable to make the required restitution, he was sold for his theft and made the restitution by his work (Exo 22:1-4). (c) Birth. Children of a Heb. slave became slaves of his master by birth (Exo 21:4), though this could not have been permanent except in the case of one who had chosen permanent slavery (Exo 21:6; Deu 15:17). (d) Children of a defaulting debtor were sold to pay the debt or were claimed along with their father as slaves till the next year of jubilee (Exo 21:7; Lev 25:39-41,47,54; 2Ki 4:1; Neh 5:5; Isa 50:1; Job 24:9). (e) Abduction. Joseph's brothers essentially stole him and sold him as a slave (Gen 37:27-28; cf. 45:4). To reduce a kidnapped person to slavery was a crime punishable by death in the laws both of Hammurabi (#14, ANET, p. 166) and of Moses (Exo 21:16; Deu 24:7).
There were limits to slave service under the Mosaic law. Besides freedom granted in the year of jubilee, a relative might redeem the slave (Lev 25:48-49). If not redeemed, however, a person would receive freedom after six years' service together with a gift of cattle or fruits from his master (Exo 21:2; Deu 15:12-15). A man's wife, and her children also, went free with him (Exo 21:3). If, however, the slave had received her from her master, then she and her children remained with the owner (Exo 21:4).
In his seventh year, an Israelitish servant could choose to become a permanent slave instead of accepting freedom. If so, he came before the elders and had his ear bored through with an awl against a doorpost, and thereby became a lifelong servant (Exo 21:6; Deu 15:17; cf. Christ in Psa 40:5-8; Heb 10:5 f.).
5. Special provisions covered a maid sold as a household slave or concubine. Should she not please her master, she could not be resold but was to be immediately redeemed (Exo 21:7-11; Deu 21:14). Yet if her master kept his contract, she could not leave either at six years or in the year of jubilee. He must give her the same dowry as a daughter if the betrothed her to his son. He must treat her equally with any other wife he took. Should he fail in any of the above, she was to be set free without any payment to him as owner.
6. Non-Israelitish slaves, purchased from heathen nation or captured in the contrast of Palestine (Num 31:9,18,35; Deu 20:14) or in later wars, remained permanent slaves along with their children (Lev 25:44-46). The Gibeonites and their descendants were permanently assigned to be public slaves to cut wood and carry water for Israel's central shrine (Jos 9:23,27; Neh 7:57-60; See Nethinim). In contrast, Israelites who were slaves of non-Israelites living in the land could obtain their freedom either at the year of jubilee, or by paying the purchase price less the value of years of service already given (Lev 25:47-55).
Besides all the provisions mentioned for slaves, there was also the possibility of manumission, i.e., receiving freedom from the hand of the owner of the slave (Exo 21:26-27). Rabbinists have suggested four ways to gain freedom: (a) Redemption by a payment of money (already mentioned). (b) Granting of a bill of freedom. (c) Disposition through a testament or will. (d) Making a slave one's heir (cf. Gen 15:2). To these should be added: (e) By command of the Lord, as through the prophet Jeremiah (Jer 34:8-10).
7. Service as royal officials and military officers (Heb. 'aboda, 1Ch 26:30; sharat, 1Ch 27:1; 28:1; 2Ch 17:12-19).
Protection was provided for the slave in the law of Moses. Loss of an eye or a tooth entitled the slave to freedom (Exo 21:26-27; cf. Exo 21:20; Lev 24:22). Extradition of fugitive slaves seeking shelter in an Israelite home was prohibited (Deu 23:15-16). The slave of an Israelite was to be circumcised. He was thereby entitled to the pascal sacrifice (Exo 12:44), all the Jewish festivals (Deu 12:12,18; 16:11,14), and the sabbath rest (Exo 20:10-11; Deu 5:14).
Religious service
1. Family observance (Heb. 'aboda) of the Passover (Exo 12:14-27; 13:5).
2. Service or care ('aboda) of the tabernacle by Levites (Num 3:7-8; 18:7,23).
3. Service in music in the temple ('aboda, 1Ch 25:1-7; 2Ch 35:15).
4. Priestly service in worship of the Lord ('aboda, 1Ch 24:1-3; 2Ch 8:14; sharat, 2Ch 29:11; Isa 56:6; latreia, Heb 9:1,6,9).
5. Work as a builder on the tabernacle or temple (Exo 36:1,3,5; 1Ch 28:20).
6. Moses as an exceptional leader was often called the servant of the Lord (e.g., Exo 14:31; Num 12:7; Deu 34:5; Jos 1:1,15; 8:31). God called all Israelites "My servants" (Lev 25:42), and such an appellation was common for the worshiper of a deity in the ancient Near East (see Yamauchi, "Slaves of God"). Later the term "Servant of Jehovah" (q.v.), Heb. 'ebed Yahweh, became a prophetic designation of Jesus Christ-a title stressing His absolute obedience to the Father (Isa 42:1-4; quoted in Mat 12:18-21; Isa 49:1-9; 50:10; 52:13-53:12).
Service in the NT
In the Hellenized cities of the NT period slaves constituted a large part of the population. Jesus ministered to Roman slaves (Luk 7:2-10) and often mentioned slaves in His teaching (e.g., Mat 10:24 f.) and parables (e.g., Mat 18:23-34), yet He never criticized the institution of slavery. Many slaves at that time were well-educated men who had been captured or had fallen upon lean days; they were capable of managing large estates and business affairs (Mat 25:14-23). But unlike classical Greece or imperial Rome, the economy of Israel never became dependent on slave labor. The benevolent requirements toward slaves in the Mosaic law prevented profitable large-scale dealing in slaves.
The term "servant" or "bondslave" (Gr. doulos) is often used by a man of God such as Paul to describe his total dedication (Rom 1:1; Phi 1:1; Tit 1:1). Such submission to Christ is called in Rom 12:1 our "reasonable service" (latreia, the performance of religious rites and duties).
Paul warns against the slavery (NASB, Gr. douleia) of legalism (Gal 4:24; 5:1), and likens the one held in the grip of sin to a slave (Rom 6:6,16-20). All of creation will at Christ's return be delivered from the slavery of corruption (Rom 8:21). Unregenerate men today are enslaved all their lives by the fear of death (Heb 2:15, NASB).
Another Gr. root that often is translated "to serve" or "service" is diakoneo, to serve by waiting on someone, as in Martha's preparing food for the table (Joh 12:2; Luk 10:40; cf. 12:37; 17:8; 22:26 f.; Acts 6:2). By extension the term came to mean any ministry of physical or financial help to others (Mat 8:15; 25:44; Luk 8:3; Acts 11:29; 12:25; 19:22; Rom 15:25,31; 2Ti 1:18; Heb 6:10). In its highest usage in the NT it is a ministry (diakonia) of the gospel (Acts 6:4; 20:24; 21:19), received from the Lord (Col 4:17; 2Ti 4:5; 2Co 5:18) and directed by the Spirit (1Co 12:4-7; 2Co 3:8). See Minister.
Other Gr. words for "servant" emphasize service with care and loving treatment (therapeia, Luk 12:42; Mat 24:45), his household status (oiketes, Luk 16:13; Rom 14:4; 1Pe 2:18), or his assisting role (hyperetes, Acts 13:5; Luk 4:20).
As the gospel message with its social implications reached into the Roman Empire it became increasingly necessary to define what the attitude of the church toward slavery should be. Many slaves were turning to Christ in the households of Christian masters (Rom 16:10-11; 1Co 1:11). Some of the slaves certainly were desiring emancipation, but Paul counseled the Christian slave to be willing to remain in that condition in which he was "called," i.e., when he was converted, with the right to accept manumission when it was offered him (1Co 7:20-23). The apostle kept repeating only more great principle-in Christ there is neither bond nor free, all are alike (1Co 12:13; Gal 3:28; Col 3:11). Thus he ordered slaves to be obedient for the Lord's sake, as a testimony (Eph 6:5-9; Col 3:22-4:1; 1Ti 6:2), and at the same time he instructed the masters to treat believing slaves fairly and justly.
In the case of Philemon and Onesimus, Paul exemplifies his attitude toward slavery. He did not ask his friend to free the runaway slave, but commended Onesimus to him as a beloved brother (Phm 1:16). In such a fraternity all its members would eventually be freed of their bonds without hatred and resorting to violence and bloodshed.
See Occupations: Servant.
Bibliography. Corn PBE, "Slavery", pp. 663-666. H. L. Ellison, "The Hebrew Slave: a Study in Early Israelite Society," EQ, XLV (1973), 30-35. I. Mendelsohn, Slavery in the Ancient Near East, New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1949; "Slavery in the OT," IDB, IV, 383-391. A. F. Rainey, "Compulsory Labor Gangs in Ancient Israel," IEJ, XX (1970), 191-202. Karl H. Rengstorf, "Doulos, etc.," TDNT, II, 261-280. H. Strathmann and R. Meyer, "Leitouregeo, etc.," TDNT, IV, 215-231. William L. Westermann, The Slave System of Greek and Roman Antiquity, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Soc., 1955 (with full bibliography). Edwin Yamauchi, "Slaves of God," Bul ETS, IX (1966), 31-49. R. A. K. and J. R.
The above is taken from the Wycliffe Encyclopedia, a component of Bible Research Systems' Verse Search program.
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